Current treatment for liver metastases from colorectal cancer
INTRODUCTION
Colorectal cancer is one of the commonest solid tumors in human beings and is responsible for approximately 10 percent of the cancer death in Western world[1-5]. The incidence of colorectal cancer is also increased recently in China[6-8]. The liver is the commonest site of distant metastasis in this disease and nearly half of the patients with colorectal cancer ultimately develop liver involved during the course of their diseases. Treatment of primary colorectal cancer with surgical resection, combined with chemotherapy and radiotherapy in some cases, is effective in many patients. But, about 10-25 % patients had liver metastases at the time of primary diagnosis and another 20-25 % patients developed metachronous liver metastases[9-12].Death of colorectal cancer is often a result of liver metastases. Over half patients died from their metastatic liver diseases. Surgical resection of distant metastases in colorectal cancer can produce long-term survival and cure in some selected patients. Surgery is the only therapy that offers any possibility of cure for the patients with hepatic metastatic diseases. The five-year survival rates after resection of all detectable liver metastases can reach up to 40 %. Unfortunately, only 25 % of the patients with colorectal liver metastases are candidates for liver resection, while the others are not amenable to surgical resection. Chemotherapy and some newer therapies are expected to raise the survival time for the unresectable colorectal liver metastases[13-15].
This article reviews the natural history of colorectal cancer liver metastases, pretreatment assessment of patients, surgical resection of liver metastases, systemic and hepatic artery chemotherapy (hepatic artery infusion, HAC, HAI), hepatic artery chemoembolization, portal vein embolization, immunotherapy and selective intra-artery radiation therapy(SIRT), and other regional therapies, including cryotherapy, radiofrequency ablation (RFA).
NATURAL HISTORY
Understanding the natural history of colorectal cancer is useful to assess the value of various treatments. About 60 % patients who underwent curative surgery for colorectal cancer will develop local, regional, or distant recurrence. Nearly 85 % of tumors recurrence are detected within 2.5 years after resection of primary colorectal cancer, and the remaining 15 % are detected within the next 2.5 years. Median survival for these patients was found to be between 5 and 9 months[16,17]. However, the majority of patients in former studies had advanced diseases diagnosed without modern imaging techniques. Several previous studies have retrospectively determined the survival of patients with potentially resectable colorectal cancer liver metastases that left untreated. It was found that a 0 % five-year survival for patients with untreated but potentially resectable liver metastases compared with a 28 % five-year survival for operated patients with resected liver metastases[18]. Another study found that patients untreated but potentially resectable liver metastases had a mean survival of 21.3 months[19]. Other study found patients with an untreated single liver metastasis had a median survival of 19 months, with no patients surviving 5 years, while patients with a resected single liver metastasis had a median survival of 36 months with 25 % of patients surviving five years[20]. It is well known that resection of colorectal cancer liver metastases improves long-term survival.PRETREATMENT ASSESSMENT
Synchronous liver metastases from colorectal cancer may be detected before operation or during operation. Suspicious liver lesions should be biopsied and send to freezing pathology during the operation. Metachronous liver metastases may be found after the operation of colorectal cancer by physical examination, blood test, and radiological imaging. Further evaluation of patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases depends on the available treatment procedures. If the patients are not suitable to operation, confirmation of the presence of metastatic lesions by ultrasound and CT scan is sufficient, no matter of number and size of the lesions. If patients are candidates for surgical resection of liver metastases, a series of examinations should be done to determine the liver function and general condition to tolerate liver resection, to delineate exactly the anatomy of the lesions including the number, size and relationship with vessels and bile ducts, and to exclude the presence of extraheapatic disease.Candidates for surgical resection of colorectal cancer liver metastases should be under a detailed history and physical examination, hematology test, liver function test, chest X-ray, and abdominal and pelvic CT scans. Patients should undergo colonoscopy to rule out the recurrence of the original primary colorectal cancer or development of a second primary colorectal cancer, if they had not already done within the past 6 months. A range of imaging techniques, including transabdominal ultrasound, CT scan, CT arterioportography (CTAP), magnetic resonance imaging(MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) can provide information of liver metastases and extrahepatic diseases[21]. Transabdominal ultrasound examination of liver correctly identifies around 52-58 % of patients who had liver metastases. Ultrasound may be most appropriately used because it is cheapest and readily available. But transabdominal ultrasound plays no role in the preoperative evaluation of potential liver resection candidates[22-24]. Abdominal CT scan is mostly used for the assessment of liver metastases, in which images are usually hypoattenuated relative to normal liver. The use of intravenous contrast increases the detectability of liver metastases because normal liver is perfused primarily by portal vein and liver metastases are perfused mostly by hepatic artery. Hypoattenuated liver metastases are more easily recognized following the intravenous contrast on CT scan during the portal venous phase. The sensitivity of helical CT of liver metastases was 80 %[25,26]. We often used more sensitive CT arterioportography (CTAP) which is an invasive method to investigate the metastatic liver lesions. We firstly placed a catheter into the superior mesenteric artery and then captured the liver CT images during the arterial and portal venous phase following contrast injection. The overall sensitivity for detection of liver metastases helical CTAP exceeded 90 %. But, perfusion abnormalities and pseudolesions were frequently observed with CTAP, thereby significantly reducing the specificity of this technique[27-29]. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is increasingly utilized for the diagnosis and characterization of liver lesions, particularly the liver-specific contrast agents and dynamic scanning have been incorporated. One liver-specific contrast agent, manganese-pyridoxal diphosphate (Mn-DPDP), is a paramagnetic agent taken up preferentially by hepatocytes and excreted in the bile. The popularity of MRI is also due to its non-invasiveness in some centers[30,31]. PET is a newer technique which can scan the whole body. It is mainly used to rule out the potential extrahepatic diseases which could not be identified by other methods before operation[32,33].
Laparoscopy is usually used for preoperative evaluation of metastatic liver diseases. Laparoscopy with laparoscopic ultrasound may be the most sensitive imaging technique for detection of liver metastases. Laparoscopy can prevent laparotomy in some unresectable cases with liver metastases which were judged resectable preoperatively by conventional imaging studies[34]. But it is still an invasive procedure which need general anesthesia. Therefore, laparoscopy was not routinely used unless the resectablity of the lesions was not determined by other methods.
SURGERY
Patients without extrahepatic diseases and with good liver function and general condition are candidates for surgical resection, while all liver metastases can be resected with at least 1 cm tumor-free margin. Up to 75 % of the liver can be removed if the liver function is normal. Recognition of the segmental basis of liver anatomy led to the evolution of the segment-based resection. This has had a particular influence on surgery for colorectal metastases because it allows excision of bilateral or multiple liver lesions that might previously have been deemed unresectable. Staged resection is another means and may be useful for bulky bilateral lesions. In fact, one or more segmental resections can often spare more normal liver than a major resection or allow resection of metastases not encompassed by a traditional major resection[35-39].The surgical resection of liver metastases from colorectal cancer first involves an exploratory laparotomy through a right subcostal incision. The abdominal cavity is explored for signs of extrahepatic disease, and suspicious areas are biopsied. The liver is fully mobilized by dissection of its supporting ligaments and palpated to identify lesions. Intraoperative ultrasound is used at this point to identify nonpalpable lesions and delineate vascular anatomy. No matter traditional liver resection or segmental resection is performed, the goal of the operation is complete removal of all metastases with at least a 1cm tumor-free margin. Although there are various methods of dividing hepatic parenchyma, I prefer using ultrasonic surgical aspirator in normal liver and a combination of ultrasonic surgical aspirator and clamp fracture in cirrhotic liver. Small vessels are controlled with electrocautery or hemoclips, and large vessels are controlled with sutures. An argon beam coagulator can also be used to achieve hemostasis in resection margin[40-42].
Vascular occlusion techniques, particularly the Pringle maneuver, have had a major impact in minimizing blood loss and reducing the morbidity associated with liver resection. Selective vascular occlusion has been popularly accepted in segment resection in patients with limited liver function. Total vascular exclusion has become widely accepted as a means of minimizing blood loss when we operated on difficult lesions. Although few surgeons use total vascular exclusion routinely, it is a technique that facilitates excision of lesions involving the vena cava or those lying near the junction of the hepatic veins and the vena cava. Some lesions which were previously been thought unresectable can now be resected with the reconstructed segments of hepatic inflow or outflow vascular structure. Replacement of hepatic vein and vena cava with autologous vein and prosthetic grafts respectively had been fasciliated by the use of total vascular exclusion and a number of techniques of liver transplantation. The use of venovenous bypass in combination with in situ hypothermic perfusion and ex situ resection and autotransplantation, have both been important additions to the liver surgeons [43,44].
The operative mortality for major liver resections has declined with improved operative techniques and postoperative care, but still significant. Operative mortality ranged from 0 % to 7 %. The causes of death include hemorrhage, sepsis, and liver failure. The Morbidity of liver resection was between 22-39 %, and the causes of morbidity included hemorrhage, biliary leak or fistula, liver failure, abscess around liver, wound infection, and pneumonia. Median survival ranged from 28 to 46 months. The five-year survival was between 24 % and 38 %[45-48].
How many lesions are too many in colorectal cancer liver metastases underlying liver resections? Many surgeons consider four or more tumors in the liver to be a contraindication for surgical resection before. But more and more authors think that the number was not a limitation in liver resection of colorectal cancer liver metastases with the use of new techniques. The follow-up showed that there was no significant difference in the mortality, morbidity and five-year survival between patients whose lesions more than four and those less than four[49].
RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION (RFA)
The so-called RF thermal ablation works by converting RF waves into heat. A high-frequency alternating current (100 to 500 kHz), mostly 460kHz, passes from an uninsulated electrode tip into the surrounding tissues and causes ionic vibration as the ions attempt to follow the change in the direction of the rapidly alternating current. This ionic vibration causes frictional heating of the tissues surrounding the electrode, rather than the heat being generated from the probe itself. The goal of RFA is to achieve local temperatures to make tissue destruction occur[50-55]. Tissue heating also drives extracellular and intracellular water out of the tissue and results in further destruction of the tissue due to coagulative necrosis. Besides these, different studies have shown that hyperthermia can cause accelerated emigration and migration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, activation of effect cells, induction and secretion of cytokines, expression of heat shock proteins, and increased induction of apoptosis[56-58].Most of the early reports on the use of RFA for colorectal cancer liver metastases came from Rossi in Italy. In 1996, they reported their results with percutaneous RFA in 50 patients, of whom 11 patients had 13 metastases ranging from 1 to 9 cm in diameter. Monopolar and bipolar needles were utilized and multiple probe insertions and treatment sessions were performed. There were no associated complications or deaths. Of the 11 patients with metastases, two underwent subsequent surgical resection, one of them had complete tumor necrosis by histopathologic examination. At a median follow-up of 22.6 months, 10 (90 %) of 11 patients were alive, two (18 %) had a local recurrence and seven (64 %) had persistent or distant disease. Only one (9 %) patient, therefore, was alive without disease. These studies suggested that although RFA was effective in preventing local recurrence of metastases, it may not affect the progressive course of the cancer[59].
Wood TF reported 231 tumors in 84 patients treated with 91 RFA procedures. The majority of the patients had metastatic lesions (213 lesions in 73 patients). RFA was given in 51 of the 91 treatments alone. The other 40 included RFA combined with surgical resection, cryoablation, and hepatic artery infusion of chemotherapy. Of the 91 RFA treatments, 39 were ablated at laparotomy, 27 by laparoscopy and 25 percutaneously. Tumors ranged in size from 0.3 to 9.0 cm. Three deaths occured, one (1 %) of which was directly related to the RFA procedure. Ten patients underwent a second RFA procedure (sequential ablations). It is due to progressive (seven patients), and recurrent (three patients) lesions. A third RFA procedure for large was performed in one patient. At a median follow-up of 9 months (range 1-27 months), 15 (18 %) patients had developed a local recurrence. Of the remaining 69 patients, 34 were alive without disease, 14 were alive with disease, and 21 died. New hepatic tumors or extrahepatic diseases occured in 35 patients. The average hospital stay was 3.6 days[60].
Although RFA has a lot of advantages in the treatment of metastatic liver tumors, it still has a few disadvantages and complications. These complications included symptomatic pleural effusion, fever, pain, subcutaneous hematoma, subcapsular liver hematoma, and ventricular fibrillation. The severe complication is treatment-related death. Interms of the methods related to tumors, the outcome of RF thermal abalation involves the skill of a surgeon performing the procedure. Exact placement of the ablation needles requires considerable skill and some degree of guess work by the radiologist and surgeon, who may be the most experienced in interventional procedures. Recurrence at the treatment margin may result from an inability to adequately kill the tumor the hepatic parenchyma adjacent to the treated tumors. The abundant portal venous blood flow present in normal hepatic parenchyma acts as a heat pump, which makes the creation of thermal injury in normal liver more difficult than that it is in liver tumors. RF also caused skin burn in percutaneous procedures, hemorrhage, diaphragmatic necrosis, hepatic abscess, hepatic artery injuries, bile duct injuries, renal failure, coagulopathy and liver failure, which were severe and eventually fatal[61-64].
Although long-term observations are not available, RFA will definitely give the surgeon a helpful hand and bring the patients a better prognosis. But, RFA is unlikely to be curative for most patients, it can relieve the symptoms of patients and improve the quality of life of patients. RFA has been shown to be safer and better tolerated as compared with other ablative techniques, such as cryotherapy, laser ablation and microwave ablation. RFA has been associated with fewer local recurrence. RFA for unresectable liver tumors provides a relatively safe, highly effective method to control local disease in some liver metastatic patients who are not candidates for liver resection. RFA also showed some better respect in combination with surgical resection, hepatic artery chemotherapy. The most interesting feature of RFA is the minimal-invasiveness with zero mortality rate, significantly lower complications, reduced costs and hospital days compared with surgery and other therapies. Furthermore, in combination with other procedures, RFA will improve the survival of patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases[65,66].
HEPATIC ARTERY CHEMOTHERAPY
Following resection of liver metastases from colorectal cancer, recurrence will occur in 60-70 % of patients, most commonly in the liver, so effective postoperative adjuvant treatment is also required, during which chemotherapy is the main method. Chemotherapy is also required in unresectable liver metastases to sustain the survival rate[80-83]. However, the optimum regimen and route of delivery should be clarified. An alternative approach to liver metastases is therefore, to deliver the drug intra-arterially[84,85]. Hepatic artery catheter chemotherapy has been a therapeutic possibility for unresectable liver metastases for many years. The rational for hepatic artery catheter chemotherapy is based on the fact that liver metastases over 1 cm derive most their blood supply from hepatic artery. Both factors cause high local drug concentrations with reduced systemic toxicity and allow relatively higher dosages as compared with intravenous treatment[86,87].Some studies compared intra-arterial chemotherapy with conventional systemic chemotherapy and showed consistently higher response rates in patients receiving intra-arterial chemotherapy[88]. In the United Kingdom, patients were randomized to receive intra-arterial chemotherapy through a totally implantable infusion device; patients were given systemic chemotherapy in other group. Survival was significantly longer in the intra-arterial group (median survival 405 days compared with 226 days). The intra-arterial group also had a better quality of life than those received systemic chemotherapy[89]. Other studies showed that the response rate was 43 % in the intra-arterial group compared with 9 % in the systemic chemotherapy group. Furthermore, the intra-arterial group showed a significant increase in the one-year survival (64 % vs 44 %) and two-year survival (23 % vs 13 %). Other studies also showed a higher response rates in intra-arterial chemotherapy than in systemic chemotherapy[90].
In all studies, 5-FU and FUDR were chosen for the arterial route of administration. As 84-99 % of FUDR is extracted by the liver on first pass, it seemed logical to use FUDR to achieve the dual objective of high levels within the tumor and low plasma levels, thereby increasing the probability of the tumor's response while minimizing the systemic toxicity[91]. But 55 % of patients using FUDR in the UK and French studies developed extra-hepatic progress, suggesting that these patients may have had occult extra-hepatic disease at the time of entry into the trial or during the intra-arterial chemotherapy. The lower plasma level of drugs has been misplaced, while 5-FU, which has a higher plasma level than FUDR, should be preferred. Although there are some complications in HAC, it is still a feasible method for liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Most complications was related to the technique of surgery and care of patients[92].
Comparison of intra-arterial with systemic chemotherapy is an important topic that has not been resolved adequately. Some groups were unable to detect any difference in recurrence of hepatic colorectal metastases after liver resection among groups treated with systemic, intra-arterial or intra-portal chemotherapy. There are a lot of new agents such as Xeloda, currently being assessed as adjuvant treatment for both primary colorectal cancer and following resection of metastatic liver lesions[93-102].
HEPATIC ARTERY CHEMOEMBOLIZATION
Hepatic artery chemoembolizaton (HACE) was developed to treat unresectable non-disseminated liver tumors[103,104]. Although HACE has not shown any benefit on survival, it increased the response rate compared with systemic administration of cytotoxic agents. HACE has been studied mostly in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma, which was also used in colorectal cancer liver metastases for some clinical trails[105]. Preoperative HACE has been proposed as a possible means of decreasing perioperative tumor dissemination, but only in a small number of patients. Some centers reported that HACE in patients with borderline resectable tumors caused sufficient tumor shrinkage to allow resection. Routine HACE produced no survival benefit on patients with resectable tumors. It was only used in unresectable tumors as an adjacent treatment[106,107].PORTAL VEIN EMBOLIZATION
Preoperative portal vein embolization induced hypertrophy in the normal liver which will be remnant and decreased the likelihood of liver insufficiency occurring after extensive liver resection[108,109]. It has not only mostly used in cholangiocarcinoma but sometimes used in liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Portal vein embolization may be performed either by percutaneous ultrasonographically guided puncture of a portal vein radical or by operative exposure of an ileocolic vein to access portal vein. It can not only be performed in the right portal vein to allow the left side hypertrophy in those who will receive right hepatectomy, but also in left portal vein to allow the right side hypertrophy in those who will receive extend left hepatectomy. Portal vein embolization was well tolerated and produced a less severe systemic reaction than intra-arterial chemoembolization[110-113].RADIOTHERAPY
Traditional external beam irradiation has found little place in the management of liver tumors because of the particularly radiosensitive nature of normal liver tissues, which limits the total dosage to 30-35 Gy[120-122]. Selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) is a new modality that may be valuable in colorectal cancer liver metastatic patients which was not suitable to resection, RFA and cryotherapy. SIRT is a technique that allows high average doses of radiation of 200-300Gy to liver tumors with minimal serious effects on the non-tumorous liver. The treatment entails delivery of usually a single dose of 90Yttrium microspheres into the hepatic artery, which by virtue of the almost exclusive arterial supply to liver tumors compared with the predominant portal supply to normal liver, resulting in selective tumor uptake and irradiation. 90Yttrium is a particularly suitable isotope for medical use in this situation. As a pure beta emitter, it is simpler to handle and use than gamma or mixed beta and gamma emitters such as131iodine[123,124]. In addition, its half-life of 2.7 days and maximum penetration in soft tissues of 11 mm both are suitable for the purpose. The micropheres do not degrade and are of a size of 29-35 mm that means they are trapped in the arteriolar capillaries. To avoid the potential radiation pneumonitis and pancreatitis and ulcaration of stomach and duodenum caused by inadvertent perfusion. The placement of a hepatic artery port is particularly important in terms of safety and efficacy. The high rate of response and encouraging survival from SIRT have been reported for hepatocellular and liver metastases from colorectal cancer[125,126].CONCLUSION
Patients with liver metastases from colorectal cancer that are potentially resectable should be evaluated by experienced surgeons and radiologists, because surgical resection remains best treatment for long-term survival, although a minority of patients are amenable to the resection. Patients who are not suitable to surgical resection and who have no extrahepatic disease can be considered for regional therapies such as RFA and cryotherapy. Patients with extensive liver metastases, Hepatic artery catheter chemotherapy and chemoembolization can be considered as an alternative to systemic chemotherapy. Portal vein embolization may be combined in the treatment of patients with huge metastases. SIRT should be used for patients without extrahepatic metastases who failed in the treatment with 5-FU and other cytotoxic agents prefer. Systemic chemotherapy should be administered in patients with extrahepatic diseases. Immunotherapy can only be used to amplify the efficacy of antitumor cytotoxic agents in combination.REFERENCES
- 1 Renehan AG, Egger M, Saunders MP, O?Dwyer ST. Impact on survival of intensive follow up after curative resection
for colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2002; 324: 813 - 2 Gwyn K, Sinicrope FA. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 13-21
- 3 Iyer RB, Silverman PM, DuBrow RA, Charnsangavej C. Imaging in the diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of colorectal
cancer. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 179: 3-13 - 4 Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial colorectal cancer risk. Am J
Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 2992-3003 - 5 Landheer ML, Therasse P, van de Velde CJ. The importance of quality assurance in surgical oncology in the treatment
of colorectal cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 2001; 10: 885-914 - 6 Li XW, Ding YQ, Cai JJ, Yang SQ, An LB, Qiao DF. Studies on mechanism of Sialy Lewis-X antigen in liver metastases of
human colorectal carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2001; 7: 425-430 - 7 Zhang YL, Zhang ZS, Wu BP, Zhou DY. Early diagnosis for colorectal cancer in China. World J
Gastroenterol 2002; 8: 21-25 - 8 Liu QZ, Tuo CW, Wang B, Wu BQ, Zhang YH. Liver metastasis models of human colorectal carcinoma established in nude
mice by orthotopic transplantation and their biologic characteristic. World J Gastroenterol 1998; 4: 409-411 - 9 Ruers T, Bleichrodt RP. Treatment of liver metastases, an update on the possibilities and results. Eur J
Cancer 2002; 38: 1023-1033 - 10 Biasco G, Gallerani E. Treatment of liver metastases from colorectal cancer: what is the best approach today? Dig Liver
Dis 2001; 33: 438-444 - 11 Yoon SS, Tanabe KK. Multidisciplinary management of metastatic colorectal cancer. Surg Oncol 1998; 7: 197-207
- 12 Cromheecke M, de Jong KP, Hoekstra HJ. Current treatment for colorectal cancer metastatic to the liver. Eur J Surg
Oncol 1999; 25: 451-463 - 13 Geoghegan JG, Scheele J. Treatment of colorectal liver metastases. Br J Surg 1999; 86: 158-169
- 14 Chiappa A, Zbar AP, Biella F, Staudacher C. Survival after repeat hepatic resection for recurrent colorectal
metastases. Hepatogastroenterology 1999; 46: 1065-1070 - 15 Fong Y, Fortner J, Sun RL, Brennan MF, Blumgart LH. Clinical score for predicting recurrence after hepatic resection
for metastatic colorectal cancer: analysis of 1001 consecutive cases. Ann Surg 1999; 230: 309-318 - 16 Luna-Perez P, Rodriguez-Coria DF, Arroyo B, Gonzalez-Macouzet J. The natural history of liver metastases from
colorectal cancer. Arch Med Res 1998; 29: 319-324 - 17 Heslin MJ, Medina-Franco H, Parker M, Vickers SM, Aldrete J, Urist MM. Colorectal hepatic metastases: resection,
local ablation, and hepatic artery infusion pump are associated with prolonged survival. Arch Surg 2001; 136: 318-323 - 18 Wilson SM, Adson MA. Surgical treatment of hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer. Arch Surg 1976; 111: 330-334
- 19 Wagner JS, Adson MA, Van Heerden JA, Adson MH, Ilstrup DM. The natural history of hepatic metastases from
colorectal cancer. A comparison with resective treatment. Ann Surg 1984; 199: 502-508 - 20 Wanebo HJ, Semoglou C, Attiyeh F, Stearns MJ Jr. Surgical management of patients with primary operable colorectal
cancer and synchronous liver metastases. Am J Surg 1978; 135: 81-85 - 21 Glover C, Douse P, Kane P, Karani J, Meire H, Mohammadtaghi S, Allen-Mersh TG. Accuracy of investigations for
asymptomatic colorectal liver metastases. Dis Colon Rectum 2002; 45: 476-484 - 22 Rydzewski B, Dehdashti F, Gordon BA, Teefey SA, Strasberg SM, Siegel BA. Usefulness of intraoperative sonography
for revealing hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer in patients selected for surgery after undergoing FDG PET. AJR Am
J Roentgenol 2002; 178: 353-358 - 23 Gruenberger T, Zhao J, King J, Chung T, Clingan PR, Morris DL. Echogenicity of liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma
is an independent prognostic factor in patients treated with regional chemotherapy. Cancer 2002; 94: 1753-1759 - 24 Cervone A, Sardi A, Conaway GL. Intraoperative ultrasound (IOUS) is essential in the management of metastatic
colorectal liver lesions. Am Surg 2000; 66: 611-615 - 25 Li L, Wu PH, Mo YX, Lin HG, Zheng L, Li JQ, Lu LX, Ruan CM, Chen L. CT arterial portography and CT hepatic arteriography
in detection of micro liver cancer. World J Gastroenterol 1999; 5:225-227 - 26 Schmidt J, Strotzer M, Fraunhofer S, Boedeker H, Zirngibl H. Intraoperative ultrasonography versus helical
computed tomography and computed tomography with arterioportography in diagnosing colorectal liver
metastases: lesion-by-lesion analysis. World J Surg 2000; 24: 43-47 - 27 Okano K, Yamamoto J, Okabayashi T, Sugawara Y, Shimada K, Kosuge T, Yamasaki S, Furukawa H, Muramatsu Y. CT
imaging of intrabiliary growth of colorectal liver metastases: a comparison of pathological findings of resected specimens.
Br J Radiol 2002; 75: 497-501 - 28 Valls C, Andia E, Sanchez A, Guma A, Figueras J, Torras J, Serrano T. Hepatic metastases from colorectal
cancer: preoperative detection and assessment of resectability with helical CT. Radiology 2001; 218: 55-60 - 29 Park JH, Nazarian LN, Halpern EJ, Feld RI, Lev-Toaff AS, Parker L, Wechsler RJ. Comparison of unenhanced
and contrast-enhanced spiral CT for assessing interval change in patients with colorectal liver metastases. Acad
Radiol 2001; 8: 698-704 - 30 Zheng WW, Zhou KR, Chen ZW, Shen JZ, Chen CZ, Zhang SJ. Characterization of focal hepatic lesions with SPIO-
enhanced MRI. World J Gastroenterol 2002; 8: 82-86 - 31 Ward J, Naik KS, Guthrie JA, Wilson D, Robinson PJ. Hepatic lesion detection: comparison of MR imaging after
the administration of superparamagnetic iron oxide with dual-phase CT by using alternative-free response receiver
operating characteristic analysis. Radiology 1999; 210: 459-466 - 32 Zealley IA, Skehan SJ, Rawlinson J, Coates G, Nahmias C, Somers S. Selection of patients for resection of hepatic
metastases: improved detection of extrahepatic disease with FDG pet. Radiographics 2001; 21: S55-69 - 33 Boykin KN, Zibari GB, Lilien DL, McMillan RW, Aultman DF, McDonald JC. The use of FDG-positron emission tomography for
the evaluation of colorectal metastases of the liver. Am Surg 1999; 65: 1183-1185 - 34 Figueras J, Valls C. The use of laparoscopic ultrasonography in the preoperative study of patients with colorectal
liver metastases. Ann Surg 2000; 232: 721-723 - 35 Parks RW, Garden OJ. Liver resection for cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2001; 7: 766-771
- 36 Petrowsky H, Gonen M, Jarnagin W, Lorenz M, DeMatteo R, Heinrich S, Encke A, Blumgart L, Fong Y. Second liver
resections are safe and effective treatment for recurrent hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer: a bi-institutional
analysis. Ann Surg 2002; 235: 863-871 - 37 Malafosse R, Penna C, Sa Cunha A, Nordlinger B. Surgical management of hepatic metastases from colorectal
malignancies. Ann Oncol 2001; 12: 887-894 - 38 Rees M, John TG. Current status of surgery in colorectal metastases to the liver.
Hepatogastroenterology 2001; 48: 341-344 - 39 Taylor I, Gillams AR. Colorectal liver metastases: alternatives to resection. J R Soc Med 2000; 93: 576-579
- 40 Rodgers MS, McCall JL. Surgery for colorectal liver metastases with hepatic lymph node involvement: a systematic review.
Br J Surg 2000; 87: 1142-1155 - 41 Fiorentini G, Poddie DB, Giorgi UD, Guglielminetti D, Giovanis P, Leoni M, Latino W, Dazzi C, Cariello A, Turci D, Marangolo
M. Global approach to hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer: indication and outcome of intra-arterial chemotherapy
and other hepatic-directed treatments. Med Oncol 2000; 17: 163-173 - 42 Yamaguchi J, Yamamoto M, Komuta K, Fujioka H, Furui JI, Kanematsu T. Hepatic resections for bilobar liver metastases
from colorectal cancer. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 2000; 7: 404-409 - 43 Bozzetti F, Bignami P, Baratti D. Surgical strategies in colorectal cancer metastatic to the liver. Tumori 2000; 86: 1-7
- 44 Bozzetti F, Bignami P. Recommendation for surgical treatment of colorectal liver metastases.
Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 243-244 - 45 Choti MA, Sitzmann JV, Tiburi MF, Sumetchotimetha W, Rangsin R, Schulick RD, Lillemoe KD, Yeo CJ, Cameron JL. Trends
in long-term survival following liver resection for hepatic colorectal metastases. Ann Surg 2002; 235: 759-766 - 46 Bolton JS, Fuhrman GM. Survival after resection of multiple bilobar hepatic metastases from colorectal carcinoma. Ann
Surg 2000; 231: 743-751 - 47 Primrose JN. Treatment of colorectal metastases: surgery, cryotherapy, or radiofrequency ablation. Gut 2002; 50: 1-5
- 48 Lorenz M, Staib-Sebler E, Hochmuth K, Heinrich S, Gog C, Vetter G, Encke A, Muller HH. Surgical resection of liver
metastases of colorectal carcinoma: short and long-term results. Semin Oncol 2000; 27: 112-119 - 49 Morris DL. Surgery for liver metastases: How many? ANZ J Surg 2002; 72: 2
- 50 Liu LX, Jiang HC, Piao DX. Radiofrequency ablation in liver cancer. World J gastroenterol 2002; 8: 393-399
- 51 Wood BJ, Ramkaransingh JR, Fojo T, Walther MM, Libutti SK. Percutaneous tumor ablation with radiofrequency.
Cancer 2002; 94: 443-451 - 52 Parikh AA, Curley SA, Fornage BD, Ellis LM. Radiofrequency ablation of hepatic metastases. Semin
Oncol 2002; 29:168-182 - 53 Choi H, Loyer EM, DuBrow RA, Kaur H, David CL, Huang S, Curley S, Charnsangavej C. Radio-frequency ablation of
liver tumors: assessment of therapeutic response and complications. Radiographics 2001; 21: S41-54 - 54 Goldberg SN. Radiofrequency tumor ablation: Principles and techniques. Eur J Ultrasound 2001; 13: 129-147
- 55 Liu CL, Fan ST. Nonresectional therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma. Am J Surg 1997; 173: 358-365
- 56 Buscarini L, Buscarini E, Di Stasi M, Vallisa D, Quaretti P, Rocca A. Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of
small hepatocellular carcinoma: long-term results. Eur Radiol 2001; 11: 914-921 - 57 Hager ED, Dziambor H, Hohmann D, Gallenbeck D, Stephan M, Popa C. Deep hyperthermia with radiofrequencies in
patients with liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Anticancer Res 1999; 19: 3403-3408 - 58 Rossi S, Di Stasi M, Buscarini E, Quaretti P, Garbagnati F, Squassante L, Paties CT, Silverman DE, Buscarini L. Percutaneous
RF interstitial thermal ablation in the treatment of hepatic cancer. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 167: 759-768 - 59 Wood TF, Rose DM, Chung M, Allegra DP, Foshag LJ, Bilchik AJ. Radiofrequency ablation of 231 unresectable hepatic
tumors: Indications, limitations, and complications. Ann Surg Oncol 2000; 7: 593-600 - 60 Solbiati L, Ierace T, Tonolini M, Osti V, Cova L. Radiofrequency thermal ablation of hepatic metastases. Eur J
Ultrasound 2001; 13: 149-158 - 61 Machi J. Radiofrequency ablation for multiple hepatic metastases. Ann Surg Oncol 2001; 8: 379-380
- 62 Bilchik AJ, Wood TF, Allegra DP. Radiofrequency ablation of unresectable hepatic malignancies: lessons learned.
Oncologist 2001; 6: 24-33 - 63 Wong SL, Edwards MJ, Chao C, Simpson D, McMasters KM. Radiofrequency ablation for unresectable hepatic tumors.
Am J Surg 2001; 182: 552-557 - 64 Pearson AS, Izzo F, Fleming RY, Ellis LM, Delrio P, Roh MS, Granchi J, Curley SA. Intraoperative radiofrequency ablation
or cryoablation for hepatic malignancies. Am J Surg 1999; 178: 592-599 - 65 Curley SA, Izzo F, Delrio P, Ellis LM, Granchi J, Vallone P, Fiore F, Pignata S, Daniele B, Cremona F. Radiofrequency ablation
of unresectable primary and metastatic hepatic malignancies: results in 123 patients. Ann Surg 1999; 230: 1-8 - 66 Gillams AR, Lees WR. Survival after percutaneous, image-guided, thermal ablation of hepatic metastases from
colorectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 2000; 43: 656-661 - 67 Sotsky TK, Ravikumar TS. Cryotherapy in the treatment of liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Semin
Oncol 2002; 29: 183-191 - 68 Seifert JK, Achenbach T, Heintz A, Bottger TC, Junginger T. Cryotherapy for liver metastases. Int J Colorectal
Dis 2000; 15: 161-166 - 69 Neeleman N, Wobbes T, Jager GJ, Ruers TJ. Cryosurgery as treatment modality for colorectal
liver metastases.Hepatogastroenterology 2001; 48: 325-359 - 70 Ruers TJ, Jager GJ, Wobbes T. Cryosurgery for colorectal liver metastases. Semin Oncol 2000; 27: 120-125
- 71 Sikma MA, Coenen JL, Kloosterziel C, Hasselt BA, Ruers TJ. A breakthrough in cryosurgery. Surg Endosc 2002; 16: 870
- 72 Finlay IG, Seifert JK, Stewart GJ, Morris DL. Resection with cryotherapy of colorectal hepatic metastases has the same
survival as hepatic resection alone. Eur J Surg Oncol 2000; 26: 199-202 - 73 Rivoire M, De Cian F, Meeus P, Gignoux B, Frering B, Kaemmerlen P. Cryosurgery as a means to improve surgical treatment
of patients with multiple unresectable liver metastases. Anticancer Res 2000; 20: 3785-3790 - 74 Seifert JK, Morris DL. Prognostic factors after cryotherapy for hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer. Ann
Surg 1998; 228:201-208 - 75 Seifert JK, Morris DL. Indicators of recurrence following cryotherapy for hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer. Br J
Surg 1999; 86: 234-240 - 76 Wallace JR, Christians KK, Pitt HA, Quebbeman EJ. Cryotherapy extends the indications for treatment of colorectal
liver metastases. Surgery 1999; 126: 766-772 - 77 Huang A, McCall JM, Weston MD, Mathur P, Quinn H, Henderson DC, Allen-Mersh TG. Phase I study of
percutaneous cryotherapy for colorectal liver metastasis. Br J Surg 2002; 89: 303-310 - 78 Gruenberger T, Jourdan JL, Zhao J, King J, Morris DL. Reduction in recurrence risk for involved or inadequate margins
with edge cryotherapy after liver resection for colorectal metastases. Arch Surg 2001; 136: 1154-1157 - 79 Ruers TJ, Joosten J, Jager GJ, Wobbes T. Long-term results of treating hepatic colorectal metastases with cryosurgery.
Br J Surg 2001; 88: 844-849 - 80 Ragnhammar P, Hafstrom L, Nygren P, Glimelius B. SBU-group. Swedish Council of Technology Assessment in Health Care.
A systematic overview of chemotherapy effects in colorectal cancer. Acta Oncol 2001; 40: 282-308 - 81 Kohne CH, Cunningham D, Di CF, Glimelius B, Blijham G, Aranda E, Scheithauer W, Rougier P, Palmer M, Wils J, Baron
B, Pignatti F, Schoffski P, Micheel S, Hecker H. Clinical determinants of survival in patients with 5-fluorouracil-based
treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a multivariate analysis of 3825 patients. Ann Oncol 2002; 13: 308-317 - 82 Piedbois P, Zelek L, Cherqui D. Chemotherapy of nonoperable colorectal liver metastases. Hepatogastroenterology
2001; 48: 711-714 - 83 Hasuike Y, Takeda Y, Mishima H, Nishishou I, Tsujinaka T, Kikkawa N. Systemic chemotherapy for advanced colorectal
cancer with liver metastasis. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho 2002; 29: 866-872 - 84 Ensminger WD. Intrahepatic arterial infusion of chemotherapy: pharmacologic principles. Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 119-125
- 85 van Riel JM, van Groeningen CJ, Giaccone G, Pinedo HM. Hepatic arterial chemotherapy for colorectal cancer metastatic to
the liver. Oncology 2000; 59: 89-97 - 86 Aldrighetti L, Arru M, Angeli E, Venturini M, Salvioni M, Ronzoni M, Caterini R, Ferla G. Percutaneous vs. surgical placement
of hepatic artery indwelling catheters for regional chemotherapy. Hepatogastroenterology 2002; 49: 513-517 - 87 Howell JD, Warren HW, Anderson JH, Kerr DJ, McArdle CS. Intra-arterial 5-fluorouracil and intravenous folinic acid in
the treatment of liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Eur J Surg 1999; 165: 652-658 - 88 Lygidakis NJ, Sgourakis G, Dedemadi G, Safioleus MC, Nestoridis J. Regional chemoimmunotherapy for
nonresectable metastatic liver disease of colorectal origin. A prospective randomized study. Hepatogastroenterology
2001; 48: 1085-1087 - 89 Allen-Mersh TG, Earlam S, Fordy C, Abrams K, Houghton J. Quality of life and survival with continuous hepatic-
artery floxuridine infusion for colorectal liver metastases. Lancet 1994;344: 1255-1260 - 90 Howell JD, McArdle CS, Kerr DJ, Buckles J, Ledermann JA, Taylor I, Gallagher HJ, Budden J. A phase II study of regional
2-weekly 5-fluorouracil infusion with intravenous folinic acid in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases. Br J
Cancer 1997; 76: 1390-1393 - 92 Kemeny N, Fata F. Hepatic-arterial chemotherapy. Lancet Oncol 2001; 2: 418-428
- 93 Weinreich DM, Alexander HR. Transarterial perfusion of liver metastases. Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 136-144
- 94 Sasson AR, Watson JC, Sigurdson ER. Hepatic artery infusional chemotherapy for colorectal liver metastases. Cancer
Treat Res 2001; 109: 279-298 - 95 Mathur P, Allen-Mersh TG. Hepatic arterial chemotherapy for colorectal liver metastases. Hepatogastroenterology
2001; 48: 317-319 - 96 Bloom AI, Gordon RL, Ahl KH, Kerlan RK Jr, LaBerge JM, Wilson MW, Venook AP, Warren R. Transcatheter embolization for
the treatment of misperfusion after hepatic artery chemoinfusion pump implantation. Ann Surg Oncol 1999; 6: 350-358 - 97 Kohnoe S, Endo K, Yamamoto M, Ikeda Y, Toh Y, Baba H, Tajima T, Okamura T. Protracted hepatic arterial infusion
with low-dose cisplatin plus 5-fluorouracil for unresectable liver metastases from colorectal cancer.
Surgery 2002; 131: S128-134 - 98 Link KH, Sunelaitis E, Kornmann M, Schatz M, Gansauge F, Leder G, Formentini A, Staib L, Pillasch J, Beger HG.
Regional chemotherapy of nonresectable colorectal liver metastases with mitoxantrone, 5-fluorouracil, folinic acid,
and mitomycin C may prolong survival. Cancer 2001; 92: 2746-2753 - 99 Muller H, Nakchbandi W, Chatzissavvidis I, Valek V. Intra-arterial infusion of 5-fluorouracil plus granulocyte-
macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and chemoembolization with melphalan in the treatment of
disseminated colorectal liver metastases. Eur J Surg Oncol 2001; 27: 652-661 - 100 Fiorentini G, De Giorgi U, Giovanis P, Guadagni S, Cantore M, Marangolo M. International Society of Regional
Cancer Treatment and Societa Italiana di Terapie Integrate Locoregionali in Oncologia. Intra-arterial hepatic
chemotherapy (IAHC) for liver metastases from colorectal cancer: need of guidelines for catheter positioning,
port management, and anti-coagulant therapy. Ann Oncol 2001; 12: 1023 - 101 Copur MS, Capadano M, Lynch J, Goertzen T, McCowan T, Brand R, Tempero M. Alternating hepatic arterial infusion
and systemic chemotherapy for liver metastases from colorectal cancer: a phase II trial using intermittent percutaneous
hepatic arterial access. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 2404-2412 - 102 van Riel JM, van Groeningen CJ, Albers SH, Cazemier M, Meijer S, Bleichrodt R, van den Berg FG, Pinedo HM, Giaccone
G. Hepatic arterial 5-fluorouracil in patients with liver metastases of colorectal cancer: single-centre experience
in 145 patients. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 1563-1570 - 103 Chen MS, Li JQ, Zhang YQ, Lu LX, Zhang WZ, Yuan YF, Guo YP, Lin XJ, Li GH. High-dose iodized oil transcatheter
arterial chemoembolization for patients with large hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2002; 8: 74-78 - 104 Wu ZQ, Fan J, Qiu SJ, Zhou J, Tang ZY. The value of postoperative hepatic regional chemotherapy in prevention of
recurrence after radical resection of primary liver cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2000; 6: 131-133 - 105 Huang XQ, Huang ZQ, Duan WD, Zhou NX, Feng YQ. Severe biliary complications after hepatic artery embolization.
World J Gastroenterol 2002; 8: 119-123 - 106 Abramson RG, Rosen MP, Perry LJ, Brophy DP, Raeburn SL, Stuart KE. Cost-effectiveness of hepatic
arterial chemoembolization for colorectal liver metastases refractory to systemic chemotherapy.
Radiology 2000; 216: 485-491 - 107 Popov I, Lavrnic S, Jelic S, Jezdic S, Jasovic A. Chemoembolization for liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma: risk
or a benefit. Neoplasma 2002; 49: 43-48 - 108 Azoulay D, Castaing D, Smail A, Adam R, Cailliez V, Laurent A, Lemoine A, Bismuth H. Resection of nonresectable
liver metastases from colorectal cancer after percutaneous portal vein embolization. Ann Surg 2000; 231: 480-486 - 109 Azoulay D, Castaing D, Krissat J, Smail A, Hargreaves GM, Lemoine A, Emile JF, Bismuth H. Percutaneous portal
vein embolization increases the feasibility and safety of major liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma in injured liver.
Ann Surg 2000; 232: 665-672 - 110 Kemeny N, Fata F. Arterial, portal, or systemic chemotherapy for patients with hepatic metastasis of colorectal carcinoma.
J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 1999; 6: 39-49 - 111 Kokudo N, Tada K, Seki M, Ohta H, Azekura K, Ueno M, Ohta K, Yamaguchi T, Matsubara T, Takahashi T, Nakajima T,
Muto T, Ikari T, Yanagisawa A, Kato Y. Proliferative activity of intrahepatic colorectal metastases after
preoperative hemihepatic portal vein embolization. Hepatology 2001; 34: 267-272 - 112 Elias D, Ouellet JF, De Baere T, Lasser P, Roche A. Preoperative selective portal vein embolization before hepatectomy for
liver metastases: long-term results and impact on survival. Surgery 2002; 131: 294-299 - 113 Imamura H, Kawasaki S, Miyagawa S, Ikegami T, Kitamura H, Shimada R. Aggressive surgical approach to recurrent
tumors after hepatectomy for metastatic spread of colorectal cancer to the liver. Surgery 2000; 127: 528-535 - 114 Lode HN, Xiang R, Becker JC, Gillies SD, Reisfeld RA. Immunocytokines: a promising approach to cancer
immunotherapy. Pharmacol Ther 1998; 80: 277-292 - 115 Okuno K, Kaneda K, Yasutomi M. Regional IL-2-based immunochemotherapy of colorectal liver
metastases. Hepatogastroenterology 1999; 46: 1263-1267 - 116 Okuno K, Hirai N, Takemoto Y, Kawai I, Yasutomi M. Interleukin-2 as a modulator of 5-fluorouracil in hepatic
arterial immunochemotherapy for liver metastases. Hepatogastroenterology 2000; 47: 487-491 - 117 Lou C, Chen ZN, Bian HJ, Li J, Zhou SB. Pharmacokinetics of radioimmunotherapeutic agent of direct labeling
mAb 188Re-HAb18. World J Gastroenterol 2002; 8: 69-73 - 118 Buchegger F, Roth A, Allal A, Dupertuis YM, Slosman DO, Delaloye AB, Mach JP. Radioimmunotherapy of colorectal
cancer liver metastases: combination with radiotherapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000; 910: 263-269 - 119 Buchegger F, Allal AS, Roth A, Papazyan JP, Dupertuis Y, Mirimanoff RO, Gillet M, Pelegrin A, Mach JP, Slosman
DO. Combined radioimmunotherapy and radiotherapy of liver metastases from colorectal cancer: a feasibility study.
Anticancer Res 2000; 20: 1889-1196 - 120 Malik U, Mohiuddin M. External-beam radiotherapy in the management of liver metastases.
Semin Oncol 2002; 29: 196-201 - 121 Liu L, Jiang Z, Teng GJ, Song JZ, Zhang DS, Guo QM, Fang W, He SC, Guo JH. Clinical and experimental study on
regional administration of phosphorus 32 glass microspheres in treating hepatic carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol
1999; 5: 492-505 - 122 Gong Y, Liu KD, Zhou G, Xue Q, Chen SL, Tang ZY. Tumor radioimmunoimaging of chimeric antibody in nude mice
with hepatoma xenograft. World J Gastroenterol 1998; 4: 7-9 - 123 Stubbs RS, Cannan RJ, Mitchell AW. Selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) with 90Yttrium microspheres for
extensive colorectal liver metastases. Hepatogastroenterology 2001; 48: 333-337 - 124 Stubbs RS, Cannan RJ, Mitchell AW. Selective internal radiation therapy with 90yttrium microspheres for extensive
colorectal liver metastases. J Gastrointest Surg 2001; 5: 294-302 - 125 Dancey JE, Shepherd FA, Paul K, Sniderman KW, Houle S, Gabrys J, Hendler AL, Goin JE. Treatment of
nonresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with intrahepatic 90Y-microspheres. J Nucl Med 2000; 41: 1673-1681 - 126 Campbell AM, Bailey IH, Burton MA. Analysis of the distribution of intra-arterial microspheres in human liver following
hepatic yttrium-90 microsphere therapy. Phys Med Biol 2000; 45: 1023-1033